Terrestrial Ice: Glaciers

Mendenhall Glacier June 09
Another part of the cryosphere is terrestrial snow and ice. This part of the cryosphere is freshwater. Glaciers make up 2% of all of the water found on earth. Glaciers also contain 75% of the earths freshwater. Throughout geologic time glaciers have advanced and retreated. Each episode of a glacial advance or retreat caused climate change. The last ice age allowed native people to migrate to North America. The people were able to travel across land bridges created by lower sea levels. As the ice sheets melted the land bridges were submerged due to higher sea levels. The last ice age, known as the Wisconsin, changed cultures and climates throughout North America. At present we are in a warming interglacial period. The massive ice sheets in Wisconsin are long gone, but our present culture was shaped by ice. In Alaska glaciers still exist and the cultures here have also been influenced by the ice. Today our planet is warming and undergoing a climate change. As our planet warms ecosystems change creating changes in the native culture. (right Wisconsin 10,000 yr ago)

In Wisconsin we live in a land sculptured by ice. There are 100,000 lakes created by the last ice sheet. The ice sheets deposits are till in the form of gravel, our number one export. Our soil from the glacier is why whe have an excellent agriculture. Our freshwater is a gift from the glaciers. The great lakes exist due to glaciers. Our landforms include drumlins, eskers, kames, kettle lakes, outwash plains and moraine deposits. Today our winters are cold with lots of snow(around 90 in.), frozen ponds and lakes. The construction of homes and roads are influenced by the cryosphere. The freeze/thaw of the land causes houses to shift, sinking and rising landscapes and our roads to dip and buckle. (NASA satellite images of the Great Lakes July/December) Wisconsin is an example of a landscape created from a continental ice sheet. Due to a past global warming period the climate changed and the glaciers of 10,000 yr ago melted.

Today global warming is changing the glaciers in the arctic. The glaciers are melting because ablation is greater than accumulation of new snow . The climate today is causing the mass balance of a glacier to change. A glacier needs to accumulate more snow than melts for it to advance. The snow and ice of a glacier help control our climate. The white color creates a high albedo. By reflecting solar energy back into space, glaciers help keep our planet cool. As our warming trend continues more ice melts. As more ice melts the albedo decreases allowing less heat to escape, causing the melting of more ice, and less cooling. Another example of a positive feedback loop. Another change that takes place as a glacier melts back is the addition of vegetation where none existed before. New vegetation creates new ecosystems. At right the photos from the USGS Alaska Glacier Repeat Photography Project shows how the Muir Glacier has changed from 1940-2005. The bottom photo shows new vegetation. As glaciers melt the sea level will change. As icebergs melt the volume occupied by the iceberg will receive the meltwater and sea level will remain constant. Terrestrial ice as it melts will add water to the sea causing a rise. If only the Alaska glaciers melt the sea level would rise .05m, but if Antarctica ice sheet melts sea level would rise 73m. A dramatic rise like this will change the Atlantic coastline . Florida will be underwater. Disney will have to change it's rides. In the arctic glacial ice is thinning and snow accumulation is reduced. As the glaciers become smaller the culture will change due to changing ecosystems caused by new vegetation and animals to fill the niches in the ecosystem. As I talk to the elders in our village there is a concern of the changing climate and the consequences caused by the changes. They talk of when they were young how the ice formed earlier and remaned longer. The elders also speak of how the permafrost is changing. Permafrost is the reason the houses are built above the land. As warmer temperatures continue the active layer of the permafrost will increase. The permafrost contains tremendous amounts of carbon and methane gas. As plant matter decomposes methane gas is produced. As long as the permafrost remains frozen the methane gas is trapped. When the permafrost melts methane gas is released. Methane gas is a greenhouse gas the will increase global warming if large quantities are released into the atmosphere. The release of methane gas creates another positve feedback loop. More methane gas is released increasing the warming of the atmosphere which melts more permafrost and causes more methane to be released. The burning of methane gas from the ice on a lake around Fairbanks is a powerful video to show the students. Another change from melting permafrost is the amount of water the tundra is now able to absorb. When frozen, water remains on the surface as lakes. The melting of the permafrost increases the ability of the ground to absorb water. The lake water drains into the now thawed ground and become more shallow or completely disappear. The animals in the lakes die off or relocate to another area.

To study terrestial ice western science must use native knowledge about ice and permafrost. Traditional knowledge and direct observations of the native people can be vital in understanding snow and ice. The people of the north slope have survived for thousands of years. During that time climate has changed the people have adapted. Western science studies ice cores from Greenland, tree rings and keep data on ice flows. To blend the two cultures scientists need to use Alaskan students to help gather data. ALISON, the Alaskan Lake Ice and Snow Observatory uses students to collect data on lake ice. The data they collect is used and analyzed for climate and lake study.

Throughout geologic history ice ages have come and gone. The sheets of ice will come again. Each time the climate and the land have changed. Ecosystems change and adapt. This is a part of nature. Without glaciers and their effect on the land North America would be a much different place. Glaciers and ice allowed for the development of native cultures in Alaska. The remnants of glacial erosion and meltwater helped create the culture in Wisconsin. Today as the warming continues from both natural and cultural causes our climate is changing. As glaciers recede scientists need to understand how addtional meltwater will change sea level, ocean salinity, ocean circulation and climate. As more permafrost is melted methane gas is released into the atmosphere allowing more warm up to continue. Native and western science need to come together to better understand our natural world. Students of all cultures need to study about our planet and think about careers in science. As the arctic climate changes the native cultures will adapt like they have for thousands of years. They know and understand the land and how all things are connected better than anyone else. My job as a retired teacher is to use the resources from this class and educate the Wisconsin students about the arctic. They should also understand how the people of the arctic live and adapt to extreme conditions and how they have survived for thousands of years. They hunt in Wisconsin for sport, they hunt in the arctic for survival. Both students need to understand the science of climate and the changes occuring.

Cryosphere: Arctic Sea Ice

Sea Ice along the coast of Wainwright
A year ago I never thought that I would ever be in the arctic. The past 6 months have been an adventure of new experiences and knowledge. Each day I venture out and explore the shoreline and tundra. I have been fortunate to see caribou, snowy owls, fox and ptarmigan. To experience the cold, the wind and extreme changes in weather has given me a new perspective on the cryosphere. Several weeks ago with the temperature hovering around -40F another science teacher and myself hiked on the arctic sea ice. Our objective was to hike out to where there was open water in hopes of seeing wildlife(seals, polar bear). As we walked we observed the changes in the ice. I was thinking wow, I am walking over a frozen ocean. Never had I dreamed of this. The wind blowing, the cold, the ocean currents underneath all added to my wonder of this environment. We never made it to open water, but the lessons of that day provided me one of the best educational experiences on the arctic.
Most people know of the hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere, not many think of or understand the influence of the cryosphere. The people of the arctic experience the cryosphere each day. Being from Wisconsin we experience the cryosphere from December through March. The cryosphere includes not only the polar regions but frozen areas outside the arctic. This includes permafrost and tundra at higher elevations, mountain glaciers and winter snow/ice in the mid- latitudes. As the cryosphere changes the other spheres are also affected. Using the cryosphere as a unit theme the disciplines of chemistry, physics and biology would be included. To better understand the cryosphere activities involving ice and solar energy need to be taught. As water freezes it expands increasing the volume and lowering the density. The lower density causes ice to float. Through observation of ice cubes one can see that most of the cube is underwater. As ice melts either in the arctic or Wisconsin will the sea level or lake levels rise? Since ice takes up more space as it melts the new water will fill the space left by the ice and the water level will not rise. Flooding in the mid west is not caused by ice melt but by the melting of the snow. The cryosphere cools the earth. Snow and ice have a bright reflective surface creating a high albedo. Albedo the reflection of heat back into space keeping the earth cool. As ice melts less heat is reflected back and the earth warms. As both snow and ice melt the color becomes darker absorbing more heat and melting more. This type of action is an example of a positive feedback. A darker surface absorbs more heat and will become warmer. On a large scale as in the arctic more exposed water leads to less albedo and more heat absorption and more melting. This is a positive feedback on a planetary scale. As water freezes it loses 80 cal/g dispersing heat to the atmosphere. Freezing is a warming process. As ice melts it requires 80 cal/g, taking heat from the atmosphere, a cooling process. As seawater due to the salt content freezes at a lower temperature. As the water freezes the salt is left behind increasing the salinity of the ocean and increasing the density of the water creating a thermalhaline current. Through this process of ice forming on the ocean the combination of higher density and salinity causes the water to sink to the ocean floor. The sinking of this water creates a current that returns the water to the equatorial regions to be warmed and returned to the poles. These currents will disperse heat and in affect the climate control mechanism. The formation of ice in the cryosphere also affects the biology of the area. Marine animals of the arctic need ice and ice flows for hunting and survival. Ice in Wisconsin also is used by animals for survival and protection.

above right muskrat on ice in Iola,WI

above : seal on ice flow at Hubbard Glacier

As the cryosphere is changing our climate is also changing. The combination of albedo, thinning ice, warming oceans, and the changing of when the ice first forms and leaves will change the native culture. As the changes in the ice occur the hunting techniques will change. The biosphere of the arctic is very fragile. The arctic ecosystem is very productive with a lower biodiversity. If global warming changes the cryosphere animals will have to adapt. Some of the animals of the ecosystem will not survive. As the water warms new species will fill the niches left void by organisms that did not adapt. This will change the food web.

Climate change in the arctic will bring together traditional knowledge and western technology. Using data recorded by natives of the arctic will help western scientists in their quest to learn more about climate and the cryosphere. Traditional knowledge has existed for thousands of years and has influenced the culture. Tapping into traditional knowledge, using satellite technology, making detailed observations and using technology to take a variety of measurements will only strengthen arctic science. The I.C.C. issued a statement to bring the arctic climate problem to the leaders of our world. They stated to stabilize greenhouse gases, have western scientists welcome traditional knowledge, get assistance to the arctic to increase green technology, to recognize the vulnerability of the Inuit people and the arctic to climate change and to help fund changes that will have to be made due to climate change in the arctic.

Whether you live in the arctic or Wisconsin the cryosphere is part of your life. It influences the hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere and lithosphere. The cultures of the arctic and Wisconsin are directly related to the cryosphere. Hunting techniques of the arctic rely on ice conditions and any changes in the ice directly effect the native people. The people of the arctic will see the changes much faster in the cryosphere and climate before the people of Wisconsin. The students of both cultures need to think about careers in science. Traditional knowledge and western science will need to combine data and pool resources to continue to understand the earth's cryosphere.

above: Wisconsin snow

left: frozen Chukchi Sea 1.5 mi from land

Climate

Eskimo Nebula

The study of climate is one topic that involves all disciplines of science. Climate study is able to show how the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere and biosphere are all connected. Climate also involves astronomy and chemistry. To understand climate and climate change you need to understand the difference between weather and climate. Weather is the daily or hourly change in atmospheric conditions with an immediate impact. Climate is the long term change that not only includes weather but also seasonal changes. People from cold climates travel to other parts of the country in winter to go to a warmer climate. Climate has influenced all cultures. Cultures change due to climate and some cultures have disappeared due to climatic changes. What happened to the Anasazi culture? They suddenly vanished. At present scientists think the climate changed and the culture was lost. Where ever people live their lives are determined by the type of climate they experience. The climate of an area dictates the type of homes people live in, the type of agriculture and crops to be planted, the weather and the severity of the seasons. Climate also effects the biodiversity of both flora and fauna. Migration of birds, whales, and reproductive cycles of organisms are influenced by climate patterns. The issues of global warming and greenhouse effect are constantly news items. Our students need to understand the difference between good science and tabloid science. A lot of misleading information concerning climate is published and broadcast. As teachers we need to use digital sites that have accurate science information. Living in Wisconsin we do not notice any climate change. Our seasonal weather patterns have not dramatically changed. Our culture has remained intact and not changed due to global warming issues. Living in Wainwright on the Chukchi Sea the Inupiat people are seeing firsthand the affects to global warming and climate change. The culture of the arctic slope depends on hunting, migratory patterns of the Bowhead whale and caribou, and the conditions of ice. The people of the village that I have interviewed all expressed concern about ice conditions, the warmer temperatures and hunting. (the photo above shows the lack of ice on the Chukchi Sea on Nov. 18)The thinning of the ice will force a change in whale hunting. If the whales are too far out due to lack of ice whaling techniques will have to change. As climate changes occur tundra plant life can change. If the plant life that is necessary for caribou changes, the caribou migration patterns could change. For thousands of years the people of the arctic have survived. During that time the climate has changed. The people survived the ice age and are surviving in today's climate. Part of nature is change. Our climate will always change over time. If global warming continues to change the arctic the people will adapt as they have done in the past.

Climate change is caused by geological changes, atmospheric changes and from organisms in the biosphere ranging from soil microbes to mankind. Plate tectonics in the past have caused landmasses to change locations. At one time Wisconsin was located on or near the equator. Not only was Wisconsin at the equator but 10000 yr ago an ice sheet one mile thick covered most of the state. Fossil fuels are found in the Arctic and Antarctica. Evidence of glaciers is found in the Saraha Desert. These are examples of totally different climates that we see today. As landmasses change latitude due to plate tectonics the prevailing climates also changed. The organisms that were alive at the time changed or perished. Today our biosphere is adding to climate change and global warming. Since the beginning of the industrial age we have been adding greenhouse gases to our atmosphere. The greenhouse gases include CO2, CH4 and water vapor. These gases block the infrared radiation from leaving earth's atmosphere, causing a continuous increase in the planets temperature. Soil microbes are adding these gases also through the decomposition of organic matter. In the arctic the soil microbes are part of a positive feedback loop. As the microbes digest the decomposing matter they release the greenhouse gases and increase nutrients in the soil. The nutrients in the soil allow new plants to grow which in turn hold more snow. The snow acts as an insulator keeping the soil warm and the microbes active into winter. Creating more greenhouse gases and nutrients. The gases add to the warming of the atmosphere and the nutrients allow more plants to grow. More heat, more active microbes, more gases released, more nutrients, more plants, and holding more insulating snow, the cycle continues. The main element for life and global warming is carbon. Carbon is a unique element which can form bonds with itself. Carbon is the basis of life. Carbon forms starches, sugars, lipids, proteins, which create amino acids essential for life. Our DNA is carbon based. Carbon along with all other elements is created in the supernova explosions of stars. We could say that our greenhouse gases are born of the stars. New stars are created go through a stellar evolution. Some stars become red giants and white dwarfs like our sun. The more massive stars destroy themselves in supernova explosions. So much energy is released that the atomic particles undergo fusion creating our elements. These explosions release so much energy that some are seen from earth. Some famous supernova are the Crab Nebula(Chandra image left), Cassiopeia, and Tycho's Star. We see the remnants of these stellar explosions in various nebula and stellar nurseries.(Chandra image of the Eagle Nebula to the right) The image shows clouds of gases and the colored lights show new stars forming. There is lots of carbon in our universe. Our early earth had an atmosphere of CO2. The simple life forms along with volcanic eruptions released oxygen into the air creating a poisonous atmosphere to most life forms. With oxygen increasing and CO2 decreasing climate change was taking place. The earth was cooling and new life forms were evolving. As time went on a balance was reached between photosynthesis and respiration. Respiration uses O2 and releases CO2 by oxygen breathing organisms and plants absorbing CO2 and releasing O2. The carbon from decomposing organisms of both plants and animals over time were converted into the fossil fuels we use today. In the arctic there is an abundance of fossil fuels and as stated above were created and deposited during a different climate. Today these fossil fuels are adding CO2 to our atmosphere increasing the greenhouse effect and global warming. We all have a carbon footprint. Industry has given us a high standard of living. People who live in the arctic need fuel for heat, electricity, snow machines and cars/trucks. Today scientists are looking at ways of reducing the amount of CO2 being released into the atmosphere. Our oceans a carbon sink can no longer keep absorbing the CO2 at the present rate. The organisms in the ocean can convert the CO2 into various carbonates. Our students need to understand the cycles of nature. They need to understand photosynthesis, respiration,the rock cycle and the carbon cycle. Not only understand the basic science but also to understand how each is related to each other. Our climate will change. Geology, biology,and chemistry all play a part. In the arctic the climatic changes are now here. The natives tell me how the ocean used to be frozen in September, how the winters are now warmer and how the ice does not extend far enough out to sea. As the climate changes in the arctic animal behavior will change. Polar bears, walrus and seals are moving further inland creating problems for some villages. Our earth is getting warmer and climate change will take place. Today as scientist study tree rings, ice cores, Devonian age coral reefs and man's impact we can learn about past climates and about our changing present day climate. The climate on earth will always change whether through geologic activity, deforestation, industry and through other effects of both man and nature.

Extend

photo credits:

Bill Wendlandt

NASA Chandra X-Ray Mission

1. National Geographic has produced and excellent program on whaling in Barrow,AK and how the thinning ice has changed the whale hunt. The program was on TV Sept 2009.

2. An excellent resource for stellar evolution is the Chandra Project. http:// chandraharvard.ecu/. At the site there are ready to use lessons for both elementary through high school. You can order an excellent stellar evolution poster and other materials at no cost.

Atmosphere and culture

We live in an ocean of air, our atmosphere. Like our liquid ocean the atmosphere is also a fluid. It has currents of flowing air, exerts a pressure on the earth's surface(14.7 lb/sq in), and is divided into layers. The atmosphere is interconnected with the lithosphere, cryosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Any changes that take place in our atmosphere will also cause change in the other spheres. As western science gathers and analyzes more data, scientists now understand that our ocean of air and our oceans are directly tied to weather and climatic events. Yet with all of our scientific knowledge the average lay person cannot read the sky. The Inupiats and other native cultures were able to read the sky and make simple predictions without the aid of scientific equipment. They were able to recognize different cloud types and the type of weather associated with them. They also recognized weather patterns associated with the wind. If the wind blew from a certain direction or suddenly changed direction a change in weather would follow. To survive they needed to understand the sky and the clues it gave to help foresee changes in the weather. Other cultures throughout the world also were able to read the sky and link atmospheric patterns to weather. As weather patterns and climate changed so did the cultures of the people.

Cumulonimbus Badlands,SD..................................Mammatus Clouds Lincoln Co. Minnesota

Both skies shown above would have foretold stormy weather to the native cultures.

Today the native culture also use the technology to aid them in understanding weather. Bush pilots use their observations of the sky along with western scientific data to better understand weather. The weather determined the type of clothing used in various cultures and the types of food to be planted and harvested. Different cultures also created a variety of sayings or proverbs associated with the weather. Red sky at night sailors delight and red sky in morning sailors take warning is based on sky observations. Weather has influenced all cultures. Weather is part of myths and folktales, art, literature and has changed history. Photo on right shows clearing weather, red sky at night.
Our atmosphere is divided into layers. Each layer has different temperature and pressure gradient. All weather takes place in the troposphere. The atmosphere protects us from ultra violet radiation and through friction destroys most meteors. Through various instruments meteorologists can measure pressure, temperature, humidity, wind, and precipitation. With satellite technology we are able to monitor our atmosphere continuously. With all the data and new information we still cannot totally predict our weather. But we are able to give warnings to severe storms. Below is an F4 Wisconsin tornado from the summer of 2005.

Meteorologists are able to map the locations of weather fronts, low and high pressure systems and upper atmosphere weather like the jet stream. Weather is powered by the sun. The combination of water, air and the energy from the sun creates our weather. The steering force of weather systems is the jet stream. Circulation of air is caused by unequal heating of the earths surface. This unequal heating causes changes in air density. The differences in density allows warm air to rise and cool air to sink. The rising and sinking of air causes convection currents. These convection currents create land and sea breezes. Other winds are created from differences in pressure systems. Winds blow from a high to a low. The greater the difference between the pressure centers the stronger the wind. A low pressure system rotates counterclockwise and consists of less dense rising air causing cloud formations. A high pressure center is sinking air that rotates in a clockwise direction. High pressure is generally clear weather. Earth has large scale planetary winds created by unequal heating at different latitudes. The highest amount of solar energy is located at the equator heating the air causing the air to expand, lower the density and rise. As the air cools it sinks around 30 degrees latitude and returns to the equator. This convection current is a Hadley Cell. The planetary winds circulates air throughout the planet creating large highs and lows. Examples of planetary winds are the trade winds, westerlies, and polar easterlies. In different parts of the country large areas of the atmosphere develop the same temperature and humidity. These areas are called air masses. As the air masses travel they will collide with other air masses. Where two air masses meet a weather front forms. The two major fronts are cold and warm. At a warm front the warm air gradually rises forming cloud types that range from high cirrus to low nimbus. A cold front is dense air that plows into a warm air mass and forces up the air forming cumulonimbus clouds. These types of clouds can be an indication of severe weather. Approaching severe weather in Iola, Wisconsin, right.
The last ingredient of weather is water. Water cycles through the atmosphere releasing and absorbing heat. The process is the hydrologic cycle. In reality it is an energy cycle. The cycle consists of evaporation, condensation and precipitation. Evaporation is a cooling process while condesation is a heating process. To change liquid water to water vapor requires energy. In chemistry this is the latent heat of vaporization. This requires a tremendous amount of energy, 540 calories/gram of water to break the hydrogen bonds and change liquid water to water vapor. The reverse is true for the process of condensation, releasing 540 calories/gram of water into the atmosphere. Energy is also required to change to water to ice and ice back to water. The amount of heat required is the latent heat of fusion, which is 80 calories/gram. All changes of state either absorb energy or release energy.
Water and sunlight also create an atmosperic display that could have been used to predict precipitation, rainbows. A rainbow is created by the diffraction of sunlight through raindrops. If the rainbow is in the west is usually means approaching rain. If in the east it means the preicipation has passed.

Double rainbow over Keatings Lake, Iola,WI.............Single rainbow

In the arctic there is a unique feature of the double sun dog on each side of the sun. The natives know that ice crystals are present in the atmosphere to create the display. At left a double sun dog over the tundra in Wainwright.

These sun dogs occurred during a high pressure system. The sky is clear with very cold temperatures. The sun dogs were on display during the daylight hours for three days. As the high pressure moved and was replaced by a low pressure system the display no longer occurred. Ice crystals in the sky also are seen as a halo around the moon . This phenomena generally precedes precipitation. A problem in the arctic is how quickly pollutants can enter the ocean and atmosphere. Arctic haze is a problem that shows how the atmosphere is changing. Aerosols and other pollutants are showing up in brilliant red sunsets. As time goes on we need to study how the arctics atmosphere is changing. What forms of pollution and there sources must be studied. Our students need to understand that our atmosphere is

small compared to the total size of the earth. Our ocean of air is a thin blue line of life sustaining gases and the source of our weather. The students need to understand the circulation of our ocean of air and how it relates to the science of meteorology. Using these digital resources the students can see first hand how weather relates to cultures and how western science studies weather and gathers data.

Extend

photo credits:

Jackie Wendlandt

Mary Wendlandt

Bill Wendlandt

Google Earth

A great source of real time weather is project datastreme.

http://www.ametsoc.org/amsedu/dstreme/